Neo Liberal Globalization and Market
Oriented Commercial
Tourism:
A Theological Critique
PTCA
International Theological Symposium
Jointly by
NCCI, CJCU and SCEPTRE
Huang Po Ho,
Prof. and vice president of CJCU, Dean of PTCA
Dec. 6-9, 2012. Kolkata, India
Introduction
 |
| PTCA Consultation on Commercial Tourism |
Tourism has been defined differently among the concerned
scholars, no consensus being reached for its definition. However, the United Nations World Tourism
Organization (UNWTO) has its definition of the concept which is widely adopted,
that states: “Tourism comprises the activities of persons traveling to and
staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one
consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes.”[1] General speaking, tourism involves industries
of transportation, accommodation, eating and drinking, retail shops,
entertainment businesses and other hospitality services. There are attempts to distinguish tourism
from travel; however no significant distinctions are reached. Semantically
speaking, all tourists are travelers, but not all travelers are tourists. But
travelers are seldom able to be exempted from taking part of tourism; therefore
attempt to distinguish the two does not make much sense to the discourses.
It is nevertheless, following the neo-liberal market
economic development, tourist activities has been commercially organized to
become a collective business industry. This has launched strategic promotion to
encourage and gather great quantity of tourist groups, and to increase their frequencies of trips, and thus altered the nature of
tourism. This new trend of commercial
tourist industry affected by the market orientation has created different side
effects related to the exploitation of nature (creation) and distortion of
human relationship. It is this sort of commercial tourism industries that
invite our attention to reflect upon theologically and to call for repentance
and transformation.
Tourism and Religious Pilgrimages
Healthy tourism puts
people in contact with other lifestyles, other religions, other ways of seeing
the world and its history. This is particularly true to tourism related to
religious activities. Since the ancient time, there has been an enticing and
interesting linkage between religion and tourism. Tourism and its related
programs interact with religious life almost in every corner of the world,
“From Amish communities of rural Pennsylvania to the snowy summits of Mount
Fuji in Japan, from the mysterious ruins of Machu Picchu in the Peruvian Andes
to the monumental pyramids of Giza in Egypt, from Chartres in France to the
Western Wall in Jerusalem, millions of tourists seek out places of religion
every year.”[2]
From
Christian aspect, ecumenism is a trend that is being increasingly observed in
religious tourism, the other trend that is favoring knowledge of other
religions and cultures is that which is known as spiritual or spirituality
tourism. Tourism destinations are conducive to interfaith and intercultural
encounters and dialogue.[3]
Pilgrimages are undoubtedly the most common form of religious and spiritual
tourism. Some religions incorporate pilgrimages in their practice, as is the
case for Buddhists, Catholic and Orthodox Christians, Hindus, Muslims, or
Shintoists. In others, this practice does not exist, but their followers still
travel to visit the sites that mark the history of their co-religionists.[4]
Though there is no specific terminology of “pilgrimage” in the Bible, the
concept of pilgrimage as a religious journey to pay visit to the sacred sites
is know from the remote antiquity. The story about Abraham to visit Mount Moria
(Gen. 22.2) has been a well known passage to many of the adherents of the
Biblical Religion.
According to the expository studies of
Biblical terminologies, that the “Latin
Peregrinus stems from the Biblical Hebrew and Greek. Two pairs of words are
used to denote the pilgrim: the Hebrew speaks of ger while the Greek uses paroikos.” Ger or Gur is used
eighty-eight times in the Old Testament,[5] it means “to abide, be
gathered, be a stranger, dwell (in/with), sojourn” [6] This terminology has its
implication of to live among those who are not relatives. A ger is not a citizen of the community
and is thus excluded from the rights and privileges of community membership.[7] The
Old Testament patriarchs such as Abraham (Gen. 12.10), Jacob (47.4) and Isaac
(Gen. 26.3) were experiencing their travelling outside the Promised Land in
Egypt and Gerar. Even the land of Canaan which they were promised to be given,
they were still always considered as sojourners in the land (Exd. 6.4). The
Greek word of paroikos on the other
hand contains rich meaning. Its secular meaning has to do with “neighbor”,
“noncitizen” or “resident alien”. In the New Testament paroikos occurs only four times and which usually in a quotation or
allusion from the Old Testament to refer to the patriarchs and the physical
descendants of Israel.[8]
Theological speaking, the wondering
nature of the elected people of God in the Old Testament was considered in a
state of intimate relation with God (Jr. 2.2; Ho. 2.14). Religious pilgrimage thus has its profundity
in spiritual meaning. Today nearly
all religious communities are in favor of tourism, because it is a means to
generate income in order to sustain their members, to better inform their
faithful and the public, to maintain and preserve sanctuaries and monuments, as
well as their natural environment.
Commercial
Tourism: Savior or Devastator?
Globalization has
opened up tourism include the religious tourism,
to a process of commercialization, transforming it into “marketable product”
which it was not in its beginnings,
for instance, pilgrims in the olden days were exempt from taxes and toll
levies; it was not necessary to pay to
enter the “houses of God”. This market oriented tourism also involves
overlapping markets that include:
that of spirituality, physical and mental health, leisure activities, culture,
short stays and city-breaks. Its demographic base is considerable. This
realization of the potential of religious tourism is recent, as is its
“launching into the market”. It leaves open enormous possibilities of growth
for the tourism industry.[9]
Today, Commercial
tourism has become one
of the four largest industries in the world alongside fuels, armaments, and
pharmaceuticals, and is a significant feature of most Asian countries. As an
industry, it involves massive financial resources and economic power in the
hands of a relative few. A structural analysis of mass commercial tourism in
light of Christian social teachings and exegesis makes it a very relevant a
theological issue and challenge.
According to some calculations, tourism industry has
generated up to some 10% of the global GDP, which provides 300 million job
opportunities, that is almost reaching 10% of the global workforce. A figure of
1.5 billion annual travelers to be reached by 2020 was predicted by the United
Nations World Tourism Organization. Take Asia continent as an example, today
Asia countries accommodated around 65 % of the world’s population, most Asian countries
are profundity with historical and natural resources, which accompanied with
innumerable contemporary planned attractive spots boosted to be tourism
destinations, has made Asian world a magnet for tourists. In order to entice
more tourists, Many countries in Asian have formatted catchy slogans for their
tourist marketing, the catchy phrases such as Incredible India, Amazing
Thailand, Malaysia Truly Asia, Remarkable Indonesia, Beauty has an address:
Oman, Marvelous Melbourne, Infinitely Yours: Seoul, The Heart of Asia: Taiwan,
and so on, are seen everywhere domestically and overseas.
Tourism industry has been considered by most of governments
regardless developed or developing countries as effective program of national
economic development scheme. Taiwan for instance, though has diplomatic
relation with only 23 countries in the world; its passport has been granted
visa waiving by more than hundred countries. The most recent offer from the
United States of this visa waiving to the people of Taiwan is the most obvious indication of its
economic implication on tourism[10].
The often given arguments from the governments to promote tourism are that,
tourism is the best way to liberate the poor, tourism is a ‘smokeless’
industry, it is costless, clean, green, non-polluting way of making money, and
that tourism creates benefits from foreign exchange and increasing employment,
which is also fostering the so-called mutual understanding between peoples.
While not denying positive nature of tourism and religious pilgrimages,
human societies are today confronted with serious threats from the contemporary
commercial tourism created by the neo-liberal market economic system.
Unfortunately, covered up by the forceful mass media propagation which is
manipulated under the economic interest of individual companies, and even state
policies, commercial tourism industry has been superficially constructed to a
solemn promise of economic development. Is tourism an economic savior or a destroyer of the household of God?
Impacts of Commercial Tourism to the
Household of God
Even if we do not go too far to question about who benefits
from the commercial tourism and discuss on the issue of justice of distribution
in this neo-liberal market oriented tourism industry. The modern commercial tourism that turns all
its activities and programs as purchasable commodities has become a major force
of destruction to that of human spirituality, to the relationship of community
and also to the integrity of creation. The weaker is victimized the most.
While it is not possible to list all the negative impacts
that the commercial tourism affects to the creation and lives on the earth,
some significant issues related to it are important to be discussed here:
1 the deviation of resource distribution:
without exception, state policy has its influence to
direct national resource distribution regardless political system. Once a
government makes its policies to emphasis tourism development as national
economic development scheme, the distribution of natural resources, social and
economical resources are inevitably affected. Resources such as land, water,
electricity, national budgets and human resource plans are drawn to the purpose. Poor aborigines and farmers
are brutally taken their pieces of land; other living resources such as water
and electricity already in short supply are further edged out for the sake. The
poor farmers and aborigines are exploited their limited living dependence and
transferred to the hands of few privileged.
2 the jeopardy of primitive ecosystem
and social structure: in order to attract tourists, infrastructures for
transportation, accommodations and leisure are essential parts of the industry,
construction and maintenance of airports, domestic transportation system,
hotels, resorts, golf courses, amusement
park and casinos not only occupied the agriculture farms and aboriginal forest
land, but also destroy the primitive ecosystem and social structure.
3 commodification of human values: a
commercialized tourism inevitably shapes tourists a hunter’s mindset, which
tends to commodify the tourism activities and everything the tourists encounter
through their tourism programs. People’s cultures, traditions, customs and arts
products, even their religious rituals, sacred places and identities,
particularly those of aborigines are denigrated to but a purchasable commodity.
Dehumanization process is taken place in the name of "smokeless industry”
economic development. Not to say of the sex tourism that causes the trafficking
and humiliation of millions women and children in the tourist receiving
countries.
4 threats to the whole creation:
ecological damage created by the commercial tourism affects not only to the
ecosystem that causes the disappearance of bio-diversity, the pollution done to
the land, water and air disqualified the life-space (oikozoe) for living
creatures and to contribute to the climate change that threats ecosystem and
all lives on the earth. The frequent migrant activities promoted by the tourism
also contribute to the infection and spread of the epidemic diseases.
These impacts of commercial tourism to the ecosystem and
human communities, are particular obvious in Asia and global south.
Commercial Tourism and Poverty
Alleviation
As mentioned above, it is almost without exception all
governments today regardless it is developed or developing countries, consider
tourism an effective way to enhance national financial income and to alleviate
conditions of poverty. It is however, in contrast to the arguments of its advocacies, commercial tourism does not bring
poverty alleviation to the poor people in developing countries, instead, it has
created wider gaps between the privileged and the poor.
The commercial tourism industry which is operated under the
neo-liberal globalization market system is accompanied by businesses owned by
transnational corporation or domestic great business consortia, which have
monopolized different sectors of tourism industry, such as airlines, cruise
companies, hotel and resort chains, amusement and casino parks, food and drink
exporters and so on. It is thus, the major portions of the income generated
from tourism industry, despise its cost and expenses of the sacrifice of the
weaker parties of the society, are flooded into the hands of the wealthy
investors, but not the needy poor and the vulnerable communities.
Some attractive arguments to support the commercial tourism
are based upon the creation of job market for the labour workers. It is true
that tourism industry creates considerable low paying job opportunity for the
tourist receiving countries, these employment generated by tourism industry
includes: tourist guide and its related travel services; gardeners, guards and
receptionists; hotel, restaurant and their attendants; and maybe adding those
poor mobile stalls workers. These are mostly jobs with long working hours yet
low paying posts. These grassroots workers are drawn to these tourist related
labor markets either because of their traditional living dependence such like
land, forest, farm and fisheries are taken for the tourist purpose, or being
diverted from their local productive living skills. In either case, traditional
ways of life and sense of community are abandoned; even those artistic skills
to present their spirituality and tribe souls are commodified to be sold along
the streets and roadsides.
In the last analysis, modern neo-liberal globalization
tourism industry has been turned to purely commercial activities which are
primary a trade by nature and is driven by the philosophy of market and
material and physical interests. The market principle of “the privileged gain
more and the winner gain whole” is the best description to the reality seen
from the view of the grassroots workers. Does commercial tourism alleviate poverty;
the answer is thus obvious negative. It may create huge profits to the few
privileged but is creating a new class of poor in the midst of ostentatiously
prosperous.
Theology of Tourism and Ethic
Concern of Missiology
With the rapid
development of commercial tourism industry, it has become increasingly common
to read tourism and travel in the modern world as a form of religion, a new
opiate of the masses. Yet what happens if we consider Church and theology as
religious forms of tourism and travel? Likewise discussions of location,
identity and the self-hood have increasingly made use of religious texts, ideas
and metaphors. Tourism is thus providing profundity of resources for theological
reflections.
Tourism as a social activity that affects almost every
aspect of human life, and is likely in favor of the privileged and unfavorable
to the vulnerable classes, cannot be overlooked as an issue of theological
concern, particularly to the contextual theological endeavors. It is however,
unlike other issues such as gender oppression, racial discrimination and
economic exploitation, tourism has drawn less attention as a crucial issue for
theological discourse and ecumenical response. It is however, as discussed
above, the impacts of commercial tourism complexly involves issues about
national resources distributions, gender and ecological justice, and
commodification of cultures and human right, which are all very much in the
center of theological concerns and its responsibility.
A Chennai Statement on the Theology of Tourism which was
issued by the participants
of an “Ecumenical
Theological Consultation on Tourism”
organized by the Ecumenical Coalition On Tourism (ECOT), Thailand, and the
National Council of Churches in India (NCCI), in Chennai, India at 2011, has
the following appeals to the churches and theological colleges:
The churches and theological colleges
have not addressed tourism within the framework of theology, ethics, social
analysis, and as an important missiological concern. Mass tourism thrives by
marketing the sun, sea, mountains, rivers, landscapes, and nature in a way that
is an affront to the creation of God, which is a gift to be shared by all. Mass
tourism does not respect life, culture and environment because it has its roots
in profit making, pleasure and enjoyment. Mass tourism brings destruction to
God's creation and thus it is an ethical, theological and missiological
concern. Tourism denies the right to live in dignity especially to the poor and
the marginalized people. It exploits abuses and misuses people at the margin.
It also sees environment merely from a utilitarian perspective denying its
integrity and wholeness. It breeds injustice and thus contradicts the
testimonies of the Bible. It has become a theological and ethical imperative to
challenge and critique the present paradigm of tourism, and search for an
alternative.[11]
Impelled by the kingdom value and Gospel teachings that
Jesus proclaimed and lived out through his suffering death and resurrection,
Christian theology by nature has to confront with issues of redemption
(justice), reconciliation (peace) and ethics in mission (missiological
reflection). It is therefore, tourism activities need to be carefully observed
under these three categories of Justice, Peace and their implementation..
1 Redemption: theological speaking,
redemption is an element of salvation to express human deliverance from sin. According
to the Catholic Encyclopedia: "the word redemptio is the Latin Vulgate rendering of Hebrew Kopher and Greek Lytron which, in the Old Testament means generally a ransom-price.
In the New Testament, it is the classic term designating the “great price” (I
Cor. 6.20) which the Redeemer paid for our liberation."[12]
Regardless different theological trends arguments on Christian salvation, a ransom price that paid for one’s
liberation has a religious implication to satisfy the demands of “justice”.
Though is focus on traditional theological interpretation the Catholic
Encyclopedia continues to explain:
Redemption presupposes
the original elevation of man to a supernatural state and his downfall from it
through sin;
and inasmuch as sin
calls down the wrath of God
and produces man's servitude under evil
and Satan,
Redemption has reference to both God
and man. On God's
part, it is the acceptation of satisfactory amends whereby the Divine honour
is repaired and the Divine wrath appeased. On man's part, it is both a
deliverance from the slavery of sin
and a restoration to the former Divine adoption,
and this includes the whole process of supernatural
life from the first reconciliation to the final salvation.
That double result, namely God's
satisfaction and man's restoration, is brought about by Christ's
vicarious office working through satisfactory and meritorious
actions performed in our behalf.[13]
In
another words, elements for redemption are ransoms to satisfy a just order and
relationship. It is thus proposed to a Christian social ethic of “justice”
based upon “loving care” purpose. Tourism though not to be totally denied or
rejected, has to be called to examination with this Christian principle and concern of justice. Justice about the
relationship between the tourist participants and its recipients, justice about
interaction between visitors and that of living creatures beside human species,
and justice about resources and profits distributions related to tourism
industry. A
question about whether (or how can) a tourism activity contributes to the
redemption of this value of relationships, should be asked for a theological
reflection.
2. Reconciliation: according to
Christian theological understanding, reconciliation is an element of salvation
that refers to the results of atonement. Reconciliation is the end of the
estrangement, caused by original sin, between God and humanity.[14]
John Calvin describes reconciliation as the peace between humanity and God that
results from the expiation of religious sin and the propitiation of God’s
wrath.[15]
It is thus, there is a
conceptual link between the Greek word of reconciliation katallage (or katallasso)
and the Hebrew word of shalom, which
generally translated as peace.[16]
This Hebrew word of Shalom though is
roughly translated as peace to different languages, when it is translated to
the Latin pax, its meaning of peace was also used to mean truce and treaty, which
has its implication of personal, social and political relationship, as well
denoting to a state of mind and affairs. The New Testament Greek word of peace
"ειρήνη”
also means quietness and rest.[17]
Tourism activities involved complicate interactions between people of different
genders, different races, different classes, different religions, and different
ethnicity and cultures, it involve also relationship between human being with
rest of creatures and also with the nature earth. Whether if the tourist
behaviors bring peace and rest to the earth;
and enhancing shalom to all these relationships are of theological tasks and
concerns. A theology of tourism is to make sure this human activity is guided
and directed to the reconciliation of human and divine, people to people and
human with other living creatures and the nature creation.
3. Ethics in Mission: Christian missiology is
the area of discipline that concerns practical aspect of faith activities,
which investigates the theory, mandate and strategies of churches and
individual Christians to do Christian mission based upon their faith confession
and theological understanding. Tasks of missiology thus has to do with
“principles of right and wrong in behaviour: Ethical moral judgments;
expressing or teaching a conception of right behaviour; conforming to a
standard of right behaviour; sanctioned by or operative on one’s conscience or
ethical judgment (a moral obligation}; capable of right and wrong action (a
moral agent).[18]
It’s relation to morality could thus be seen as a ‘system of moral conduct’,
which presupposes not only rules and regulations of what is right and wrong,
but also the underlining and implicit change of identity that occur in the process of mission and the ethos or
lifestyle that flows from that.[19]
In
the process of missional endeavours from the developed world, it more than
often happened that the ethical values of the developed world have been imposed
on indigenous cultures.[20] The
social values of the developed world were seen as ‘gospel’, and in the process,
missionaries have not always been sensitive to the social ethics of indigenous
cultures as Dana L. Robert expresses it well:
Mission at its worst ran the danger of
cultural imperialism, of imposing western lifestyles and values to the
destruction of indigenous ones. Critics have charged that the modern missional
movement was little more than a sustained attempt to impose Euro-American
culture on the peoples who came under its sway. To be sure, the missionary
drama was played out on the same stage as the powerful political and economic
developments of the period; missions were stained by its association with western
imperialism. By virtue of its global reach the movement became a primary
carrier of modernity and the artifacts and institutions associated with
modernity early became hallmarks of missions. [21]
We have indeed learned
from mistakes made in the past, but also need to keep on learning and exploring
new horizons on an ongoing basis. The church and Christian attitudes and
mission position toward the tourism industry can be seen as a test stone to
examine this hidden missiological ethics of a church, and thus, called for
theological reflections and reconstructions.
Alternative
Tourism Concerning Sustainability and Community Well Being
How then, can tourism and religious
pilgrimages be characterized as healthy and sustainable? A Proposal for alternative form of
tourism has been given with respect to Christian environmental ethics which
emphasis on the acknowledgement of the worth of creation, and inclusion of the
environment as an aspect of the common good. The proposed potential alternative
tourism is stressed on Community Based Tourism.[22]
Community based tourism is considered comparatively fair, sustainable, and
respectful of the environment through conserving resources and using energy
carefully. It is owned, managed, and evaluated by the community with the
purpose of enabling visitors to increase their awareness and learn about the
community. This ensures interaction between tourists and the local people, and
helps the visitor to discover local habitats and wildlife, and celebrate and respect
traditional cultures, rituals and wisdom.[23]
This form of tourism creates greater economic benefits for the local
communities, enhances their quality of living, and builds local capacity as
they engage in collaborative decision making.
But
is this form of tourism compatible to the mass commercial tourism? Here comes
the tasks and responsibility of Christian mission. Tourism, as a dominant
industry in today’s world, needs to be prophetically challenged to understand
that the earth belongs to all, not just to the financiers of the industry, the
tourists, the world’s affluent, or those who promote a kind of ‘development’
that does not benefit the poor. Christian mission has the task to provide
leadership with Gospel value oriented ideas and practice.[24]
Therefore we are in debt to
foster the emergence of a virtuous cycle of local development in economic,
environmental, social, cultural and ethical terms; it must participate in the
preservation of local natural and cultural assets. It should not have an impact
on climate change—which means using renewable energy as best and as
economically as possible and avoiding polluting the atmosphere.[25]
Based upon this concept of sustainability
and community based tourism, the UNWTO has developed a series of objectives in favor
of sustainable tourism, among which the following can be underlined:
1) Economic viability
2) Local prosperity
3) Employment quality
4) Social equity
5) Visitor fulfillment
6) Local control
7) Community wellbeing
8) Cultural richness
9) Physical integrity
10) Resource efficiency
11) Environmental purity [26]
Responses from Christian Theology
and Theological Education
The challenges of commercial tourism to the Christian
mission and its Gospel ethics has suggested a responsibility for Christian
theology and theological education. Based upon the theological principle of option
for poor and side with oppressed that most third world theologies are upheld, the
following suggestions can be taken as basic elements for theological reflection and
theological curriculum concerning the missiology on tourism:
1 To critically examining the tourism industry its
structure and practice under the Christian value of justice that proposed by
the biblical understanding of the Kingdom of God. By doing this, Churches and
individual Christians have to take the position of the underside weaker parties
of the society, the minority aboriginals, the displaced and marginalized women
and children for their missional concern.
2 To pay attention to the justice of economic
distributions on both the impacts to the resources allocations made by the
governmental policies and the just distribution of the profits generated from
this tourism industry. Critiques need to be made also on the distortion of the
tourism affected by the neo-liberal globalization market system.
3 To explore the potential connection
of tourism with pilgrimage as an
alternative tourism to stimulate an ethical engagement for mutuality,
solidarity, and a healthy human community. Particularly taking into consideration of the
inter-faith relations.
4 To study on the problematic issues created by the
modern commercial tourism such like: displacement created by tourism, fake advertisement
for tourism industry, commodification of human relation and cultural-spiritual
objects.
5 To critically investigate the impact of
commercial tourism to the household of God, i.e., affection of ecosystem, the
climate change and its undermining the eco-justice.
6 To construct a Christian understanding of
missiology of tourism to advocate a community based tourism that take the
structure of sin as a point of reference for evaluation of the activities of
commercial tourism programs.
(End)
[1] "UNWTO
technical manual: Collection of Tourism Expenditure Statistics". World Tourism Organization,
1995. http://torc.linkbc.ca/torc/downs1/WTOdefinitiontourism.pdf retrieved Oct. 11 2012
[2] Tourism and Religion, Encyclopedia
of Religion see: http://www.encyclopedia.com/article- 1G2-3424503147
tourism-and-religion.html. retrieved at Oct. 22,2012
[3]
Tourism
and Religions: A Contribution to the Dialogue Among Religions, -- Summary of the Report, See: http://sdt.
unwto.org/sites/all/files/pdf/summary_en.pdf, p. 2, retrieved
at Oct. 22,2012
[4] ibid., p. 3
[5] Lawrence O. Richards, Expository Dictionary of Bible Words
(Grand Rapids Ml: Zondervan Publishing House, 1985), s.v.
"alien/aliens."
[6] R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer, Jr., & Bruce Waltke,
eds., Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament (Two Volumes) (Chicago: Moody
Press, 1980), s.v. "ger.'
[7] Richards, Expository Dictionary, s.v.
"alien/aliens."
[8] ibid.,
[9]
Tourism
and Religions: A Contribution to the Dialogue Among Religions, -- Summary of the Report, ibid., p. 4
[10]
The American Institute in Taiwan (AIT) is for the first time in the history to
set up stands in the night market of different cities of Taiwan to promote
tourism to US after the announcement of this visa waiving policy.
[11] Chennai Statement on Theology of
Tourism, see: http://ecumenism.net/archive/2011/03/chennai_statement_
on_the_theology_of_tourism.htm, retrieved at Nov. 6, 2012
[12]
See Catholic Encyclopedia, entry of Redemption: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12677d.htm
[13]
ibid.,
[14]
see
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, Reconciliation: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconciliation_(theology), retrieved at Nov. 7,2012
[15]
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion
(II.16.2).
[16] Wikipedia, Reconciliation, ibid.,
[17]
Wikipedia,
Shalom, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalom retrieved at Nov. 8, 2012.
[18] Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster’s
collegiate dictionary, (Merriam-Webster, Springfield, 2003), p. 341 see: Mission and ethics in Galatians,
http://www.ajol.info/index.php/hts/article/viewFile/70885/59842
[19]
ibid.,
[20]
Nissen, J., New Testament and mission: Historical
and hermeneutical perspectives, Peter Lang GMBH, Frankfurt. (2007). see mission
and ethics in Galatians, ibid.,
[21] Robert, D.L., American
woman in mission: A social history of their thought and practice, ( Mercer
University Press, Mercer.
2005: 412), ibid.,
[22]
What is
community based tourism, see, http://www.responsibletravel.com/copy/what-is-community-based- tourism, retrieved
at Nov. 9,2012
[23] ibid.,
[24] Tourism and Religions: A
Contribution to the Dialogue Among Religions,
-- Summary of the Report, ,
ibid., pp 5-6
[25]
ibid.,
[26] quoted from Tourism and Religions:
A Contribution to the Dialogue Among Religions,
-- Summary of the Report, ibid., p. 5-6
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